Introduction
Arctic travel is a fixture of our collective imagination. The extreme Arctic climate is matched by the extremes of our images: at one end is the vast, desolate, windswept land endlessly haunted by Dr. Frankenstein and his monster in the final chilling chapters of Mary Shelley’s novel; at the other is the snowy white cartoon landscape frequented by polar bears, cheeky penguins, and Eskimos, with a candy-striped NORTH POLE sign planted firmly at the top. Arctic cruises take adventurous travelers to experience these extremes for themselves.

Beyond these caricatures lies the real Arctic, a vast area shared by Canada, the U.S., Russia, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. Arctic travel takes travelers on exciting expedition cruise featuring grassy knolls, ragged ledges, blooming tundra, smoking volcanoes, bubbling calderas, coastal forests, and glaciers as well as snow-white plains. Polar bears, yes—and arctic foxes, moose, caribou and reindeer, lemmings, seals, walrus, whales, eagles, auks, and puffins. Penguins, no. (Penguins only live in southern regions and Antarctica.) Plus a host of hardy native peoples, of whom the Eskimo—now preferably called the Inuit—is but one group.

Technically speaking, the Arctic isn’t a land at all. In contrast to its southern sister Antarctica, which is a land continent bounded by oceans, the Arctic mass is a partly frozen ocean bounded by continents. As seasons change and ocean currents circulate colder and warmer water, the ice cap’s edge expands and contracts as ice forms and melts.

The Arctic region can be defined in a number of ways. The most obvious line is the Arctic Circle, ringing the Earth at the 66.5° latitude. Another line is the summer isotherm, an imaginary boundary north of which the average summer temperature does not rise above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius), which is traced from the Kuril Islands to Nome, Alaska, across Greenland and Iceland, and up to Scandinavia. Yet others are the tree line, the limits of permafrost, or the anthropological boundaries of Arctic peoples. For our purposes, “the Arctic” will refer to the Arctic region, including the ice cap and the broadest definition of the arctic portions of the surrounding continents and islands.

By many people’s reckoning, small ships are by far the best way to explore Arctic regions. They provide the safest access, greatest flexibility, and most comfort to travelers while exacting a minimal toll on arctic environments, which in some places are terribly fragile. Whether you choose to shear a path to the North Pole aboard a nuclear-powered icebreaker, circumnavigate Baffin Island, cruise majestic Nordic fjords, hike Kamchatka’s fiery volcanoes, or retrace the famed Northwest Passage, you are sure to find an Arctic that surpasses your expectations with its array of landscapes and cultures, flora and fauna. But no penguins.
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Natural History
The closer we look, the more we find that life has a remarkable capacity for adaptation and endurance in inhospitable environments. The Arctic is no exception. We expect to encounter an abundance of plants and animals in the more temperate regions warmed by ocean and air currents, but it is perhaps the life forms that have stubbornly staked out an existence in the harsher regions that deserve our even greater respect. The number of species which have accomplished this feat in the Arctic is impressive.

The magnificent polar bear is the mascot and king of the Arctic. The largest carnivore on Earth, it is equally home on land or in water, where it adeptly hunts seals. Aside from humans, it has no natural enemies. Cubs, which are born in January, are cared for by the females alone. Bear sightings are usually of males, who are solitary for most of the year. Massively powerful and frightening to watch when hunting, polar bears can at other times appear almost cuddly and playful. Beware the visitor who wants to “play,” however; the polar bear is wild and can kill a human with a swipe of its huge claws.

Found above tree line (north of the summer isotherm), the elk-like caribou roam the tundra of arctic North America and Greenland. The thrill of watching a herd cross the vast, open plains recalls the hunters and gathers who followed similar ungulate herds across the Bering Strait. The Inuit have traditionally hunted caribou, one of their mainstays. The caribou survive on lichens during the harsh winter months and migrate great distances in search of food. Both cows and bulls sport antlers—some bulls have racks over four feet wide. To keep up with the constantly moving herd, a calf learns to run 90 minutes after it is born.

Although considered the same species, reindeer measure a bit smaller than caribou. Northern Eurasian peoples domesticated the reindeer some 2,000 years ago. There still exist reindeer herders—notably, the Sami of northern Finland—who look to the reindeer for all kinds of economic goods, from clothing and shelter to food to pets.

The polar bear, reindeer, and caribou all survive winter’s temperatures of below -30°F (-34 °C) by virtue of their coats, which have specially adapted hairs to trap air close to their bodies. The air keeps them insulated against the cold and helps them stay afloat in water. Both reindeer and caribou swim well. They splash across rushing streams and even through the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean.

The arctic fox is the region’s most common predator. In contrast to its southern, red cousin, the arctic fox sports a more compact body and blunter features to cope with the colder climate. The wolf rounds out the complement of large predators.

In addition to the large mammals, smaller and equally intriguing arctic hares, voles, and lemmings bound across the windy meadows and feed on arctic seeds and grasses. During the winter months, lemmings, small hamster-like animals, turn from brown to white. The color change keeps them camouflaged from snowy owls and other predators. When food supplies dwindle, massive groups of lemmings migrate in one direction until they find more edible grass. Contrary to common belief, lemmings do not leap en masse from cliffs into the sea with suicidal intentions; as they migrate, the crush of the mass can force them to fall off the edge.

If botany is your passion, or even a vague interest, the almost 1,700 kinds of plants that grow in the Arctic and sub-Arctic will keep you well occupied. These include bluebells, poppies, and nearly 900 other types of flowers. On your northern adventure, you’ll become familiar with the Arctic’s hardy vegetation and scout out the animals that thrive on it. South of the tundra, you’ll explore evergreen forests of firs, cedars, pines, and spruces. In some places, thick, shag carpets of reindeer moss cover the forest floor.

From the tundra, head back to the shoreline to watch for sea birds. No trip to the Arctic is complete without a search for the laysan albatross. Sightings are most common over the Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands. Albatross fly low over the waves their wings stretched to full span—more than six feet—and snatch fish from schools just beneath the surface. Land, to the albatross, is just a place to breed. Once hatched, the birds take a seafaring life. Scientists observe that most albatross sleep while coasting on air currents. Along the jagged Bering Sea coast, archaeologists have unearthed hundreds of albatross bones in the ruins of ancient Aleut and Inuit dwellings. Such discoveries suggest that the albatross once played an essential role in their diets and livelihoods.

On the North American side of the Arctic, you may spot the once-endangered American bald eagle, the national bird of the United States. Keep a keen eye out for the colorful puffin with its “horns” and bright orange beak, a favorite among photographers. On the wing, puffins look like missiles flying fast and low to the water. They dive underwater and swim with their wings to feed on small, minnow-sized fish. They store their catches inside their bills to carry them back to their nesting young.

Depending on your itinerary, you may catch sight of the sooty and short tailed shearwater, the spotted nutcracker, the red-breasted flycatcher, or the orange-flanked blue-tail. Humpback whales, harbor seals, peregrine falcons, sea otters, orca whales, and the ever-famous walrus are some of the other hundreds of animal species that flourish in the arctic wilds.

The geology is captivating. Throughout the Arctic region, conical peaks tower thousands of feet above rocky beaches; steaming volcanoes seem to tickle the shine of the sky. Glaciers have built, crushed, and carved the landscape. Beneath the surface lie rich deposits of oil and minerals.

One of the highlights of an Arctic experience is the mesmerizing aurora borealis, or northern lights. It appears as shimmering streaks or wisps in the evening sky and is caused by charged particles in the atmosphere. Knowing its scientific cause doesn’t diminish the magic of the sight itself. The best time of year to see the aurora borealis is between October and March.

For more information on Arctic natural history, see book selections below.
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History
Among the Earth’s last territories to be documented by Western explorers and mapmakers, or coveted by the politics of Europe and Russia, are the chilly and isolated lands that ring the North Pacific, namely northeastern Siberia and Alaska. Long into the 18th century, the North Pacific and the North Pole appeared blank on most world maps. Africa’s unexplored “Heart of Darkness” was more widely known than the great frozen spaces of the far north. But this world of forests, tundra, mountains, and glaciers bridging Eurasia and North America was far from lifeless and empty. People migrated into what is now northeastern Siberia more than 16,000 years ago. They moved into the Arctic regions, presumably following mastodon, mammoth, and caribou herds, which supplied them with food, clothing, and materials for tools and shelter. These ancient peoples dispersed north and east with the end of the last Ice Age. Some scientists speculate that the movements occurred between 30,000–40,000 years ago, in the Pleistocene period, when water levels in the Bering Sea dropped low enough to reveal a land bridge connecting northeastern Asia to the North American continent. Eventually they made their way to Alaska and Canada.

Legend has it that Pytheas of Massilia, a Greek explorer in about 325 B.C., first described the far north. He claimed that he had journeyed six days north of Scotland and arrived at an island. For centuries, no one believed his far-reaching story. Much was guessed, but little was truly known until well after the Dark Ages, when the rough shape and size of the Earth were determined.

Things began to change with the age of whaling and Europe’s hunger for commerce and trade. By the late 1500s, Europe was searching for a northwest or northeast passage to China. To this end, Willem Barents made three trips to the north between 1594 and 1597, and is credited with discovering Spitsbergen. Between 1607 and 1610, Henry Hudson traveled to Greenland, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Hudson River, and Hudson Bay. Many explorers, hunters, and traders contributed to the knowledge bank of the far north, but no one succeeded in finding a commercial passage. The expansion of the Russian empire, notably under the rule of Peter the Great, increased the scope of arctic maps. His efforts culminated in the Great Northern Expedition of 1733-43, led by the Danish captain Vitus Bering, who today lends his name to a strait, a sea, an island, and a glacier. The difficult navigation conditions encountered by the expedition closed the door on the possibility of a northeast route to China for the time being and renewed interest in finding a northwest route.

Explorers continued to fill gaps in the maps. In the early 1770s the Englishman Samuel Hearne became the first European to reach the Arctic Ocean over land from Hudson Bay. In 1778, Captain James Cook headed to northeast Siberia and Alaska and confirmed the separation between the Asian and American continents. In 1845, Sir John Franklin sailed from England in search of the northwest passage and disappeared. Ironically, the rescue teams sent out after him over the next 12 years contributed much more to geographical knowledge than Franklin’s expedition itself and proved the northwest passage possible.

Technological advances of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries gave a boost to polar exploration. One hundred fifty years after Bering’s expedition, the advent of the steam engine made navigation of the Northeast Passage finally possible. Adolf Erik Nordenskjöld led a Swedish-Russian voyage over the top of the Eurasian Arctic, around Asia, and back through the Suez Canal in 1878–1879. The Northwest Passage was not completed entirely by sea until 1906, when Roald Amundsen made the three-year voyage in the Gjöa.
Fridtjof Nansen’s heroic, three-year expedition drifting in pack ice aboard his specially-built ship, the Fram, in the 1890s helped inspire the race to reach the North Pole. Seventeen expeditions mounted by six countries tried to get to the Pole by sled, ship, balloon, and airship, but none succeeded. Robert E. Peary claimed in 1909 to have reached it, but his claim is now regarded as fraudulent. The first sighting of the pole occurred in 1926, when Lieutenant Richard E. Byrd and his pilot, Floyd Bennett, took a small plane up and over the ice cap. World War II put a halt to polar exploration for several years.

It wasn’t until 1968 that the North Pole was finally reached over land, by an American team led by Ralph Plaisted. By this time, the Cold War was in full swing, and the Arctic once again was the focus of intense interest, being the shortest distance between the United States and the Soviet Union. Air bases and radar stations were established. In 1958, a U.S. Navy atomic submarine explored 1,830 miles of area underneath the Arctic ice cap, opening the possibility of a passage below the polar ice between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Nuclear-powered icebreakers were developed by the U.S.S.R. The Arctic’s isolation made it militarily useful as a test site for nuclear weapons, and access to the Soviet Arctic was strictly prohibited.

The collapse of the U.S.S.R. and the end of the Cold War left Russia with a desperate shortage of cash. Science and tourism have become the dual beneficiaries in this situation, with scientists enjoying new access to a network of bases and transportation. Tourism is welcomed for its cash revenue, and Russian icebreakers have a new lease on life as expedition cruise ships.

Today, new opportunities exist for neighbors to come together in peace and work on social, ecological, and economic challenges in ways that treat the circumpolar environment as a unified place with unique qualities to be shared across political boundaries. One such opportunity is the Arctic Studies Center, a satellite of the Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution (U.S.), established in 1988 to foster research and multinational cooperation. The Center collaborates with indigenous arctic communities to facilitate cultural preservation. First-class museum exhibitions from worldwide collections are brought to northern native communities. The Center’s “Crossroads of Continents” exhibit returns artifacts, for the first time in almost two centuries, to the regions of their origins. Native communities actively coordinate international scientific field investigations. Community archaeology digs offer young people the chance to learn about the past and bring research into the future.

For more information on Arctic history, see book selections below.
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Culture
Archaeological evidence indicates that all indigenous arctic peoples share common roots in Central Asia and, over thousands of years, branched out over the Arctic, developing unique communities and ways of life. They divide into eight broad groups. On the North American side of the Arctic are the Aleuts, the Inuit, the Athapaskans, and the northwest coastal Indians known as the Tlingit. The peoples of the Eurasia side, the Even, Sami, Koryak, and Chukchi, stem from the Amur River’s Chinese-influenced cultures.

Like other arctic inhabitants, the indigenous arctic peoples have adapted to and thrived in the harsh climate, depending heavily on animals they hunt and/or herd. The nutritional needs dictated by extreme cold are met by a high-fat and protein diet of mostly meat and fish. Along the coast, people subsist largely on fishing and on seal hunting. The inland peoples hunt wild caribou and/or breed reindeer. Where they have been unable to physically adapt, they have appropriated animal adaptations, like using skins and heat-trapping fur for insulation.

The Inuit (Eskimo) are the most famous and the most widespread arctic people, ranging from northeastern Greenland to the Siberian coast of the Bering Sea. The Aleut, best known for their adaptations to maritime environments, traditionally harvested most of their food from the sea. The Athapaskans, the first to cross the Bering Strait, were forest-dwellers and hunters, gathers, and trappers. The Athapaskan-related Tlingit harvested fish and other seafood from coastal waters. They carved elaborate designs of family crests, animals, and mythical beings into huge cedar logs. These totem poles once stood over Tlingit communities; now many reside in museums and parks. The Tlingit harvested cedar logs from coastal forests to make houses and dugout canoes.

On the Eurasian side, the Even live west of the Okhotsk Sea and herd reindeer. The Koryak populate the Kamchatka and nearby coastlines. The Chukchi also live in the region and, along with the Koryak, fall into two camps—reindeer breeders on the tundra and sea mammal hunters on the coast.

Despite their relative isolation from lower latitudes, the Arctic peoples have not lived in isolation from each other. Groups have long communicated and traded amongst each other, passing on myths, ideas, culture, and technology; thus we find common themes in many different peoples.

A sobering theme shared by Arctic peoples is the threat to their native cultures in the wake of the social and economic changes of the last half-century. Exploration, exploitation of oil, gas, and mineral resources, environmental degradation, and tourism all exert pressures on traditional ways of life, and communities have struggled to balance the trade-offs with varying levels of success.

For more information on Arctic culture, see book selections below.
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Dos and Don'ts
Arctic Travel Tips:

Appropriate clothing is essential in the Arctic! Cold-weather clothes may require some extra expense, but are well worth it. The weather can be unpredictable and can change very rapidly, so it is best to be prepared at all times. Dressing in layers offers the greatest warmth and flexibility when the barometer shifts. Make sure to take: a windproof and waterproof jacket and pants; warm sweaters; thermal underwear; thick socks; a warm hat with ear protection; heavy gloves; and waterproof boots. Wool and polypropylene fleece are excellent choices, as they keep you warm even when they are wet. Jeans are fine for indoors, but provide poor protection against cold and wind when they get wet. Fortunately these days there are many high-tech, yet comfortable fabrics and practical styles from which to choose.

Do take measures to shield yourself from the sun. Even on a cool or overcast day, the Arctic sun’s rays can be damaging, and are made doubly so when reflected by snow, ice, or water. Sunglasses with UV protection are a must. Also make sure to wear sunscreen on your skin and lip balm.

The dry, arctic wind can chap the skin. Do apply moisturizing lotion to your skin (men too!) to combat windburn. Also pack eye drops for relief from dryness.

Photographers may want to take along a UV or skylight filter (a good idea in any case) to cut down on glare. If you are traveling to an extremely cold area, take into consideration the effects of cold on your camera and consult your camera service shop. Mechanical cameras can be polar-oiled. Electronics may freeze up completely. Photo and video film and equipment is expensive and can be hard to come by in many polar regions, so bring ample supplies.

Local people are generally agreeable about being photographed, but do ask beforehand as a courtesy, especially with Inuit or Sami people in tourist areas who may tire of being snapped constantly.

Some Arctic itineraries navigate difficult seas. If you are prone to motion sickness, consult your tour operator as to what to expect. Over-the-counter medicines and remedies such as ginger, peppermint, and acupressure wristbands are effective.

Carry ample bug repellent, and minimize wearing colognes and other scents that insects like. Pests are surprisingly abundant in the Arctic.

If you buy handcrafts, be aware of any restrictions on the import of products from protected species (such as ivory) to your home country. If possible, obtain a certificate of origin and authenticity. Note that all Arctic countries prohibit the export of historical artifacts unless you have a license.
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Weather
The Arctic has a cold, dry, windy climate, and even though it is summer, the temperature may drop below freezing. Daytime temperatures in the Arctic in July and August range between 32º and 50ºF, but the wind chill can make it feel quite a bit colder.
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Best Time to Go
July, August
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Temperature Range
July – August
32º – 50°F

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Books
Nansen: The Explorer as Hero, by Roland Huntford
Biography
Nansen is a Norwegian hero and legend. Huntford does a thorough job of uncovering Nansen, the man and his triumphs. The Fram expedition and his travels with Johansen make this book hard to put down.

Glacier Ice, by Edward R. LaChapelle
Natural History
A stunning book of aerial photographs of mountains, glaciers, and ice.

Arctic Memories: Living with the Inuit, by Fred Bruemmer
Culture
A stunning book of photography reflecting Bruemmer’s time among the Inuit.

Seabirds of the World: A Photographic Guide, by Peter Harrison
Field Guide
The smaller, portable version of Harrison’s guide to seabirds. The best around.

Farthest North, by Fridtjof Nansen and Roland Huntford
Exploration
A classic account of the voyage of the Fram by the great Norwegian polar explorer, first published in 1897.

Paddle to the Arctic, by Don Starkell
Exploration
The illustrated diary of a 3,000-mile journey from Churchill to Tuktoyaktut.

Arctic Dreams: Imagination and Desire in a Northern Landscape, by Barry Lopez
Natural History
A wonderful book which resulted from extensive personal travels throughout the North. Lopez weaves biology and history throughout his tales.

Inuit: Glimpses of an Arctic Past, by David Morrison and Georges-Herbert Lermain
Culture
A gorgeously produced and authoritative volume on daily life among the Inuits.

Lonely Planet The Arctic, by Deanna Swaney
Guide Book
A comprehensive guide to the circumpolar north.

To the Arctic: The Story of Northern Exploration From Earliest Times, by Jeanette Mirsky
Exploration
A vivid history of the circumpolar north. A classic narrative of Arctic exploration.

Polar Bears: Living with the White Bear, by Nikita Ovskynikov
Natural History
A beautiful book chronicling Ovskynikov’s four years living among the polar bears.

The World of Arctic Whales: Belugas, Bowheads, and Narwhals, by Stefani Paine
Natural History
Photographic essay on belugas, bowheads, and narwhals. Dozens of spectacular photographs of the whales species restricted to the Arctic.

The Vanishing Arctic, by Bryan Alexander and Cherry Alexander
Culture
Documents life in the Circumpolar North, with chapters on the Greenland Inuit, reindeer herders of Lapland, Canadian Inuit, Siberian Nenet, and Cree peoples of the Canadian Subarctic.

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